Chapter X · Partial
Differentiation
Section 1. The Spaces Rn:
D&R For
the positive integer n, Rn
is the set of all points in n-space, that is, the set of all
ordered n-tuples (a1,
a2,
. . . , an) of
real
numbers. In particular, R2
is the plane and R3
is
space. If a = (a1,
a2, . . . , an)
and b = (b1,
b2, . . . , bn),
we define
|a - b| to be the square root of ((a1
- b1)2
+ . . . + (an - bn)2).
Then |a - b| has all the properties of distance. Now let f
be
a
function whose domain is a set in Rn
and whose values are in Rm
. Then f is continuous at c means
∀ε
∃δ ∀x ( |x - c| <
δ ⇒ |f(x) - f(c)| <
ε).
This definition is formally the same as before but
note that x and c are in Rn
and f(x) and f(c) are in Rm
.
Ex1 If
f is a function from Rn
into Rm (the domain
is a
set in Rn and the
values
are in Rm ), define
lim
f = L. In what space is L? [Rm]
a
D f
is a function of n (real) variables if the domain of f is a set in Rn
and the values of f are real numbers.
E 1)
f(x, y) = x2 + y2
, domain = R2
2) f(x, y, z) = x2y
+ yz + x tan z, domain is the cube 0 ≤ x ≤1, 0
≤ y ≤ 1, 0 ≤ z ≤ 1
R The
function f defined by f(x, y) = x2
+ y2 is continuous at
(0, 0).
Proof: Let ε be given.
Choose δ = √(ε/2). Then
∀(x, y) (√((x-0)2
+ (y-0)2 ) <
δ ⇒ x2
+ y2 <
ε ⇒ |f(x, y) - f(0, 0)| <
ε).
R A
function of two variables may not be continuous even though it is
continuous in each of the variables seperately. Consider f
defined by f(x, y) = xy/(x2
+ y2) for (x, y)
≠ (0, 0)
= 0 for (x, y) =
(0, 0).
For x = 0, f(0, y) = 0 identically and is
continuous at (0, 0). Similarly for y = 0, f(x, 0) is continuous at (0,
0). Now let (x, y)
approach (0, 0) along the line x = y. Then for
(x, y) ≠ (0, 0), f(x, y) = x2/(x2
+ x2) = 1/2. But f(0,
0)
= 0 ≠ 1/2.
Thus f is not continuous at (0, 0).
D An
ε-neighborhood
of the point c in Rn
is
the set of all points x such that |x - c| < ε.
That is, the interior of an
n-dimensional sphere with center c and radius
ε.
Let S be a set of points in
Rn . c is an interior
point of S if there is an ε-neighborhood of c that lies
entirely in S.
S is open if
every point of S is an interior point of S.
d is a limit point
of S if every ε-neighborhood of d contains at least one
point of S.
S is closed if S
contains all of its limit points. (In general, S is neither open nor
closed.)
The boundary of
S is the set of all limit points of S that are not interior points of S.
S is connected
if every pair of points in S can be connected by a polygonal path lying
entirely in S.
A domain is a
connected open set. A region
is a domain together with some (or none, or all) of its boundary.
Section 2. Partial Differentiation:
R The
theorems below are given for functions of two variables, but they hold
for functions of n variables.
D Let
f be a function of two variables.
(1) Then f1(a,
b) by definition = lim f(a + Δx, b) - f(a,
b)
Δx→0
Δx
(2) and f2(a,
b) by definition = lim f(a,
b + Δy) - f(a, b)
Δy→0
Δy
N
u
=
f(x, y) f1(a,
b) = ∂f |
= ∂u |
∂x |(a,
b)
∂x |(a, b)
R f1
and f2 are also
functions of two variables, defined by (1) and (2).
E If
f(x, y) = x2 + 2y,
then f1(x,
y) = 2x and f2(x, y)
= 2.
Ex2 If f(x, y)
= sin (ex + y), find f1
and f2 .
Ans:
f1 = ex
cos (ex
+ y) ; f2
= cos (ex
+ y)
T1 (The Mean Value
Theorem)
If f is a function of two variables,
and f1 and f2
are continuous in a domain D, and the circle with center at (a, b)
passing through
(a + Δx, b +
Δy) lies entirely in D, then there exist θ1
and θ2
with 0 < θ1, θ2
< 1 such that
f(a+Δx, b+Δy) - f(a, b) = f1(a+θ1Δx,
b)Δx + f2(a+Δx, b+θ2Δy)Δy
Proof: Let
Δf = f(a+Δx, b+Δy) - f(a, b).
Then adding and subtracting f(a+Δx, b) gives
Δf = [f(a+Δx,
b) - f(a, b)] + [f(a+Δx,
b+Δy) - f(a+Δx, b)].
Let φ be defined by φ(x) = f(x, b).
Then φ'(x) = f1(x,
b).
By the mean value theorem,
f(a+Δx, b) - f(a, b) = f1(a+θ1Δx,
b)Δx for some θ1
with 0 < θ1
< 1.
Let ψ be defined by ψ(y) =
f(a+Δx, y). Then ψ'(y) = f2(a+Δx,
y). By the mean value theorem,
f(a+Δx,
b+Δy) - f(a+Δx, b) = f2(a+Δx,
b+θ2Δy)Δy
for some θ2
with 0 < θ2
< 1.
T2
(The Chain Rule)
If f, g and h are functions of two
variables and f, g, h, f1,
f2,
g1, g2,
h1 and h2
are all continuous and F is defined by
F(r, s) = f(g(r, s), h(r,
s)), then F1(r, s) =
[f1(g(r,
s),
h(r, s))][g1(r, s)] +
[f2(g(r,
s), h(r, s)][h1(r,
s)]
and
F2(r,
s) = [f1(g(r,
s), h(r, s))][g2(r,
s)] + [f2(g(r, s),
h(r,
s)][h2(r,
s)] or
in other notation, if x = g(r, s) and
y = h(r, s) and u = F(r, s) = f(x, y), then
∂u
= ∂u
∂x
+ ∂u
∂y
∂u
= ∂u
∂x
+ ∂u
∂y
∂r
∂x ∂r
∂y ∂r
and ∂s
∂x
∂s ∂y
∂s
Proof: F1
(r, s) = ∂u
| = lim
ΔF/Δr
∂r |(r,
s)
Δr→0
Now
ΔF = f(g(r+Δr, s), h(r+Δr,
s)) - f(g(r, s), h(r, s))
Let g(r+Δr, s) = x+Δx, and let
h(r+Δr, s) = y+Δy.
Then
ΔF = f(x+Δx, y+Δy) - f(x, y).
By
T1, ΔF = f1(x+Δxθ1,
y)Δx + f2(x+Δx,
y+θ2Δy)Δy.
∴ ΔF/Δr = f1(x+Δxθ1,
y)Δx/Δr + f2(x+Δx,
y+θ2Δy)Δy/Δr.
Now
Δr → 0, Δx
→ ∂x|
= g1(r,
s)
Δr
∂r|(r,
s)
and
Δy
→ ∂y|
= h1(r,
s)
Δr
∂r|(r,
s)
∴ lim ΔF
= f1(x,
y)∂x
+ f2(x,
y)∂y
Δr→0 Δr
∂r
∂r
∴ ∂u
= ∂u
∂x
+ ∂u
∂y
∂r
∂x ∂r
∂y ∂r.
The other part of the theorem is proved similarly.
R
T2 is easily extended, as the following examples show.
E
u = f(x, y, z), x = g(r, s), y = h(r, s), z = k(r, s)
Then
∂u
= ∂u
∂x
+ ∂u
∂y
+ ∂u
∂z
∂r
∂x ∂r
∂y ∂r
∂z ∂r
E u
= f(x, y), x = g(t), y = h(t)
Then
du
= ∂u
dx
+ ∂u
dy
dt
∂x dt ∂y dt
E
u = f(x, y, z), z = g(x, y), y = h(x) or u = f(x, h(x), g(x, h(x)) =
F(x).
Then
du
= ∂u
+ ∂u
dy
+ ∂u
( ∂z
+ ∂z
dy)
dx ∂x
∂y dx ∂z
∂x
∂y dx
The distinction between du/dx and
∂u/∂x is brought out by using functional
notations.
Let F(x) = f(x, y, z) =
f(x, h(x), g(x, h(x))
Then
F'(x) = f1 + f2h'
+ f3(g1
+ g2h')
Thus
du/dx = F' while ∂u/∂x = f1
.
Ex3 1)
If u = f(s2 - t2,
t2 - s2),
show that t(∂u/∂s) +
s(∂u/∂t) = 0.
2) If u = x3f(y/x,
z/x), show that x(∂u/∂x) +
y(∂u/∂y) + z(∂u/∂z)
= 3u.
3) If F(x, t) = f(x + 2t) + f(3x - 2t)
and u = x + 2t and v = 3x - 2t, show that
F1(x, t) =
f
'(u) + 3f '(v) and
F2(x, t) =
2f '(u) - 2f '(v).
Section
3. Second Derivatives:
R Suppose
x = g(r, s), y = h(r, s), u = f(x, y), F(r, s) = u = f(x, y).
What is
∂2u/∂r2
=
∂/∂r(∂u∂r)
= (F1)1
= F11
Now ∂u/∂r =
∂u/∂x (∂x/∂r) +
∂u/∂y(∂y/∂r) = f1g1
+ f2h1
.
∴
∂/∂r(∂u/∂r) =
(∂u/∂x)(∂/∂r)(∂x/∂r)
+
(∂x/∂r)(∂/∂r(∂u/∂x))
+
(∂u/∂y)(∂/∂r)(∂y/∂r)
+
(∂y/∂r)(∂/∂r(∂u/∂y))
=
(∂u/∂x)(∂2x/∂r2
) +
(∂x/∂r)(∂/∂r(∂u/∂x)) + (∂u/∂y)(∂2y/∂r2
) +
(∂y/∂r)(∂/∂r(∂u/∂y)).
Now ∂u/∂x and
∂u/∂y are each functions of x and y.
To get their derivatives with respect to r, we
must use the chain rule again. Thus ∂/∂r(∂u/∂x)
is computed by using the
original formula, but substituting
∂u/∂x for u.
Then
(∂/∂r(∂u/∂x)) =
(∂/∂x(∂u/∂x))(∂x/∂r)
+ (∂/∂y(∂u/∂x))(∂y/∂r)
= (∂2u/∂x2)(∂x/∂r)
+ (∂2u/∂y∂x)(∂y/∂r).
Ex4 1)
Find F11 using
function
notation exclusively.
2) Show that 5∂2u/∂x2
+ 2∂2u/∂x∂y
+ 2∂2u/∂y2
becomes ∂2u/ξ2
+ ∂2u/∂y2
if we set ξ = (1/3)(x + y) and y = (1/3)(x - 2y).
3) If u = F(r) and f = (x2
+ y2 + z2
)1/2 show that
∂2u/∂x2
+ ∂2u/∂y2
+
∂2u/∂z2
= d2u/dr2
+ (2/r)du/dr.
4) If u = f(x - ct) + g(x + ct) show that
∂2u/∂t2
= c2∂2u/∂x2
R
∂
2u
= ∂ 2u
∂x∂y
∂y∂x
if they are
continuous.
The End.